Piaget and Cognitive Development Stages, interpetations, applications...

According to Piaget, humans are actively involved in their personal journey to knowledge and learning by their interactions with their environment, along with their responses to it (University of Texas). Piaget suggested four stages of Cognitive Development. The first stage is Sensorimotor which occurs from birth to age two, followed by Pre Operational from age two to six (University of Texas). The Concrete stage is third from age’s six to eleven ending with Formal from eleven on throughout life (University of Texas). Piaget relies on the idea that individuals are intrinsically wired to seek and learn from the stimuli around them, followed by incorporating the new information into their schemas and cognitive structures (University of Texas). Similarities exist between Piaget’s theory and contemporary Cognitive Theorists by assuming individuals are active in their own learning, the learning relies on associations between stimuli and that knowledge is structured or organized (University of Texas).

Piaget asserted that schemas, or the psychological structures that enable an individual to process and categorize stimuli around them, change through adaption and organization (Berk, 2008). Adaption is the schemas created from the interaction with the environment or stimuli and relies on assimilation and accommodation (Berk, 2008). Assimilation allows present schemas to interpret new stimuli or new learning while accommodation requires new schemas to be created in an attempt to explain the new stimuli (Berk, 2008). Organization involves the internal process of arranging and linking cognitive structures together to form networks (Berk, 2008).

According to Piaget, sensorimotor activity is the contributor to babies’ cognitive development (Berk, 2008). This cognitive development is occurring from birth to age two (Berk, 2008). This cognitive development occurs sequentially in stages beginning with Reflexive Schemas, followed by Primary Circular Reactions or simple motor activities involving the self (Berk, 2008). Secondary Circular Reactions emerge as imitation of familiar stimuli or behaviors followed by Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions which is goal driven, intentional activities (Berk, 2008). Tertiary Circular Reactions are the exploration of new environments and Mental Representation are the ability to understand the properties of the stimuli even in the stimuli absence (Berk, 2008).

Although Piaget has some similar characteristics and values found in contemporary Cognitive Theories, there are also many contradictions. One concern with Piaget’s work is that he relied on his own children for observation, thus a small sample, biased research, and uncertain validity exists. Furthermore, the research assumes the Violation of Expectation method is valid. Violation of Expectation is a method that habituates babies to physical events then presents the baby with two new, novel events to observe. One event contains similarities or adheres to the same physical laws as the original event, while the alternate event violates the laws one would assume based on the original event. The idea is to measure the difference in time the infant spends looking at each. If the infant spends more time with the unexpected event, it is assumed the infant has an understanding of the concept relative to the original event (Berk, 2008). However, it may merely indicate an infant’s interest in new concepts (Berk, 2008). The measure can not infer total understanding of the concept, only awareness or familiarity (Berk, 2008). Furthermore, it may include variables outside of the basic concept that are appealing to the infant such as color, sound, etc. causing the longer gaze. It would also be difficult to generalize the findings to a larger population as it would have to account for experiences prior to the testing to ensure there are no further links or familiarity with the events presented.

Contradictions also exist in the idea of specific, age related stages of sensorimotor development. Piaget suggests mental representations are formed at about eighteen months; however research has found deferred imitation as early as six weeks (Berk, 2008). Recall has also been researched and tested by brain wave activity measuring ERP’s, and found to emerge at twelve to eighteen months (Berk, 2008).

Most learning theories assume that how individuals learn language is dependent upon their experience with that language (Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Although the actual learning of language may require only minimal interaction, the actual form of language is based upon experience with that specific form (Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Research has found that at three months, infants can distinguish hundreds of spoken sounds (Hawley & Gunner, 2000). The brain, however, adapts to the familiar language (Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Further research ahs found that mothers who spoke to their infants regularly had over two hundred more words by age two than children whose mothers rarely verbally interacted with actual words (Hawley & Gunner, 2000). It is also noted that television, radio, adult conversations being present do not yield the same results, inferring that the infant must actual have interaction with the language to obtain it (Hawley & Gunner, 2000).

The Core Knowledge Perspective attempts to counter Piaget’s theory and does not attribute all learning to experiences within the environment. Rather, the Core Knowledge Perspective assumes that individuals are born with cognitive abilities that enable the ability of processing new experiences and attaining learning (Berk, 2008) This ability is innate and exists free from experience. The premise for this theory is found in research that indicates infants have some understanding of object permanence, object solidity and gravity within the first few months of life (Berk, 2008). Core Knowledge Perspective also theorizes that language abilities and knowledge are predetermined before birth by utilizing innate abilities and understanding (Berk, 2008).



Although there are many criticisms of Piaget’s work, many Learning Theories still adhere to the basic fundamentals of his ideals. The premise that an individual learns through experience is widely assumed. The rate of learning, however, seems to be a point of contention between Piaget and other theories. The idea of predisposition for learning is also a consideration which does not adhere to Piaget’s assumptions. To make inferences from Piaget’s work would require further research in controlled environments with findings that can be validated and generalized.

References:
Berk, L. (2008). Cognitive Learning. In L. Berk, Infants, Children and Adolescents (pp. 164-249). Boston: Pearson.
Hawley, T. P., & Gunner, M. P. (2000). Starting Smart. Retrieved January 29th, 2010, from Ounce of Prevention Fund and Zero to Three: http://www.zerotothree.org/site/DocServer/startingsmart.pdf?dbID=2422
University of Texas. (n.d.). Cognitive Learning Theory from notes on Ormond's Human Learning. Retrieved January 28th, 2010, from Cognitive from Lynda Abbott: http://teachnet.edb.utexas.edu/-lynda_abbott/Cognitive.html

Two Contrasting Theories of Child Development, Learning, and Child Psychology...

Albert Bandura was of the school of Behaviorism, thus enabling him to
evolve the theories into what is now considered Social Learning Theory.
According to Bandura’s thought, the most influential form of instruction
is modeling the behavior (Berk, 2008). The primary focus for Social
Learning Theory is learning (Berk, 2008). Learning can be altered by
impairments in listening and processing, as well as, memory (Berk,
2008). However, the foundation of Social Learning Theory relies on the
concept of Behavior Modification (Berk, 2008). With Behavior
Modification positive reinforcement is used to encourage appropriate
responses and punishment or negative outcomes are the consequence of
undesirable behavior (Berk, 2008). Bandura did not subscribe to the
thought that all behavior was motivated by positive reinforcement;
rather he modified the concept to allow for learning behavior by
observed reinforcement of others. Bandura utilized the behavior
modification ideology and took it a step further by asserting that
children actually create a specific set of behavioral rules from what
they observe which enables self efficacy or expectations and beliefs
regarding their own behavior (Berk, 2008). These rules are reinforced by
observed rewards and punishment for the behavioral rules they perceive
(Berk, 2008). Therefore, children ultimately choose models for their own
behavior that emulate the perceived standards they have created (Berk,
2008). Furthermore, according to Bandura, as children engage in new
experiences, their perception of the world and the rules of behavior
evolve to consider this new information (Berk, 2008). One of the
downfalls of Social learning Theory is that it does not allow for
environmental influences to be a factor in behavior or learning (Berk, 2008)

The key to behavior modification is that it must
be consistent and appropriate to the task. As Bandura points out, skills
such as listening, processing, and memory can impair the learning
abilities. In the professional area of teaching adults with
developmental disabilities life skills, Social Learning theory is
utilized with behavior modification. The basic foundation of teaching
skills to individuals with cognitive delays, physical impairments, and
behavioral issues that interfere with daily life is to model new skills,
assist with these new skills whenever possible eventually fading to
independence with the skill, followed with reinforcement for completion
of the task. It is critical that the task requested be appropriate for
the individual level of functioning. As Bandura points out with his
theory, self efficacy, or expectations of self emerges, and if the
individual perceives that they have failed or unable to complete a task
or skill, they will develop a poor concept of self and abilities.
Whereas, if the tasks presented are small and within reach of the level
of functioning, once achieved, the individual will perceive themselves
as able to make accomplishments and learn.

Contrary to Social Learning Theory is Piaget's theory of Cognitive
Development. Piaget's theory focuses on the cognitive and intellectual
aspects of behavior ( Capella University, 2010). Cognitive Development
suggests that children learn through interaction with stimuli, not from
rewards or punishment received for new learning (Berk, 2008). Piaget
also claimed that in regards to intellectual growth, development occurs
in four distinct stages ( Capella University, 2010). The determinant for
the development is seen in how the child is able to receive, interpret,
and process new information ( Capella University, 2010). The first stage
occurs from birth to two and is coined Sensorimotor stage ( Capella
University, 2010). At this time of development the child relies on sense
to obtain information and conclusions are created from this input (
Capella University, 2010). The child is also able to understand object
permanence ( Capella University, 2010). From age two to seven, the child
engages in the Pre-operational stage ( Capella University, 2010). At
this time language emerges and the child is able to assign symbols and
representation to categorize and understand stimuli such as words,
images, numbers, etc. However, this classification is based on single
characteristic ( Capella University, 2010). The Concrete stage is
present from ages seven to eleven ( Capella University, 2010). The
child is able to recognize multiple characteristics of stimuli and
comprehend that one stimulus may be present in multiple categories (
Capella University, 2010). This suggests logical thinking and sequencing
( Capella University, 2010). Finally, from age eleven on is the Formal
stage in which the individual is able to utilize their own knowledge
base to form conclusions and to process abstract concepts ( Capella
University, 2010). Some of the opposition of Cognitive Development
Theory points out that individuals may develop at different rates, not
in set time frames as Piaget suggests. Furthermore, interaction with a
stimuli or familiarity with a stimulus may increase the skills with this
stimulus regardless of the cognitive stage of development.


Personal experience as a mother sways this writer against Piaget's
theory. This writer has observed many children in the day care class
whose skills vary tremendously, although in the same age group.
Furthermore, as opponents of Piaget s theory suggest, interaction with
certain skills will allow for increased knowledge and efficiency with
these tasks, regardless of age group. Children exposed to advanced
cognitive concepts on a regular basis begin to acknowledge and process
these concepts, forming constructs and placing them in their knowledge
base for future use. Furthermore, Piaget does not consider the cultural
influences that promote or impair learning. Exposure to academics and
learning environments increases the cognitive skills, whereas, children
with little stimulation will not have the experience with cognitive
stimuli reference for comprehension and understanding of concepts. A
child in a third world country without educational opportunities is not
going to share the same cognitive stage as a child who received early
childhood educational services and formal education.

References Capella University. (2010, January 11). Human Development
Theorists. Retrieved January 12, 2010, from Course Media Capella
University:
http://meida.capella.-edu/CourseMedia/HumanDevelopmentTheorists Berk, L.
(2008). History, Theory, and Research Strategies. In L. Berk, Infants,
Children, and Adolescents (pp. 2-49). Boston: Pearson.

Valerie Poling

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